Space and Time Complexity

Space complexity refers to the amount of memory used by an algorithm to complete its execution, as a function of the size of the input. The space complexity of an algorithm can be affected by various factors such as the size of the input data, the data structures used in the algorithm, the number and size of temporary variables, and the recursion depth. Time complexity refers to the amount of time required by an algorithm to run as the input size grows. It is usually measured in terms of the "Big O" notation, which describes the upper bound of an algorithm's time complexity.

Why do you think a programmer should care about space and time complexity?

  • A programmer should care about space complexity because they need to make sure their program can run with the physical memory of the system that they will run on. They need to make sure their program works even with physical constraints, such as memory.
  • Programmers should care about time complexity because it can help programers evaluate which algorithm is most efficient to achieve optimal conditions and running time. We can use this time complexity to evaluate how long it takes to run code segments and therefore how long it will take for our code/program to run

Take a look at our lassen volcano example from the data compression tech talk. The first code block is the original image. In the second code block, change the baseWidth to rescale the image.

from IPython.display import Image, display
from pathlib import Path 

# prepares a series of images
def image_data(path=Path("images/"), images=None):  # path of static images is defaulted
    for image in images:
        # File to open
        image['filename'] = path / image['file']  # file with path
    return images

def image_display(images):
    for image in images:  
        display(Image(filename=image['filename']))

if __name__ == "__main__":
    lassen_volcano = image_data(images=[{'source': "Peter Carolin", 'label': "Lassen Volcano", 'file': "lassen-volcano.jpg"}])
    image_display(lassen_volcano)
    
from IPython.display import HTML, display
from pathlib import Path 
from PIL import Image as pilImage 
from io import BytesIO
import base64

# prepares a series of images
def image_data(path=Path("images/"), images=None):  # path of static images is defaulted
    for image in images:
        # File to open
        image['filename'] = path / image['file']  # file with path
    return images

def scale_image(img):
    baseWidth = 625
    #baseWidth = 1250
    #baseWidth = 2500
    # baseWidth = 5000 # see the effect of doubling or halfing the baseWidth 
    # baseWidth = 10000 
    #baseWidth = 20000
    # baseWidth = 40000
    scalePercent = (baseWidth/float(img.size[0]))
    scaleHeight = int((float(img.size[1])*float(scalePercent)))
    scale = (baseWidth, scaleHeight)
    return img.resize(scale)

def image_to_base64(img, format):
    with BytesIO() as buffer:
        img.save(buffer, format)
        return base64.b64encode(buffer.getvalue()).decode()
    
def image_management(image):  # path of static images is defaulted        
    # Image open return PIL image object
    img = pilImage.open(image['filename'])
    
    # Python Image Library operations
    image['format'] = img.format
    image['mode'] = img.mode
    image['size'] = img.size
    image['width'], image['height'] = img.size
    image['pixels'] = image['width'] * image['height']
    # Scale the Image
    img = scale_image(img)
    image['pil'] = img
    image['scaled_size'] = img.size
    image['scaled_width'], image['scaled_height'] = img.size
    image['scaled_pixels'] = image['scaled_width'] * image['scaled_height']
    # Scaled HTML
    image['html'] = '<img src="data:image/png;base64,%s">' % image_to_base64(image['pil'], image['format'])


if __name__ == "__main__":
    # Use numpy to concatenate two arrays
    images = image_data(images = [{'source': "Peter Carolin", 'label': "Lassen Volcano", 'file': "lassen-volcano.jpg"}])
    
    # Display meta data, scaled view, and grey scale for each image
    for image in images:
        image_management(image)
        print("---- meta data -----")
        print(image['label'])
        print(image['source'])
        print(image['format'])
        print(image['mode'])
        print("Original size: ", image['size'], " pixels: ", f"{image['pixels']:,}")
        print("Scaled size: ", image['scaled_size'], " pixels: ", f"{image['scaled_pixels']:,}")
        
        print("-- original image --")
        display(HTML(image['html'])) 
---- meta data -----
Lassen Volcano
Peter Carolin
JPEG
RGB
Original size:  (2792, 2094)  pixels:  5,846,448
Scaled size:  (625, 468)  pixels:  292,500
-- original image --

Do you think this is a time complexity or space complexity or both problem?

  • I think it is both a time and space complexity problem.
  • It will take less space and time if the image is smaller, but more space and time if the image is scaled to be bigger.
  • A base width of 5000 took 0.8secs, a base width of 10,000 took 8.1 secs, while a base width of 40,000 took a MUCH longer time of 28.2secs and the image didn't even show up. A base width of only 625 took 0.1 seconds. Therefore, you should make images smaller to conserve space/time, and to also make sure the image actually shows up.

Big O Notation

  • Constant O(1)
  • Linear O(n)
  • Quadratic O(n^2)
  • Logarithmic O(logn)
  • Exponential (O(2^n))
numbers = list(range(1000))
print(numbers)
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 847, 848, 849, 850, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861, 862, 863, 864, 865, 866, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871, 872, 873, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 895, 896, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910, 911, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 923, 924, 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 933, 934, 935, 936, 937, 938, 939, 940, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 950, 951, 952, 953, 954, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 965, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, 976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 982, 983, 984, 985, 986, 987, 988, 989, 990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999]

Constant O(1)

Time

An example of a constant time algorithm is accessing a specific element in an array. It does not matter how large the array is, accessing an element in the array takes the same amount of time. Therefore, the time complexity of this operation is constant, denoted by O(1).

print(numbers[263])

ncaa_bb_ranks = {1:"Alabama",2:"Houston", 3:"Purdue", 4:"Kansas"}
#look up a value in a dictionary given a key
print(ncaa_bb_ranks[1]) 
263
Alabama

Space

This function takes two number inputs and returns their sum. The function does not create any additional data structures or variables that are dependent on the input size, so its space complexity is constant, or O(1). Regardless of how large the input numbers are, the function will always require the same amount of memory to execute.

def sum(a, b): 
  return a + b

print(sum(90,88))
print(sum(.9,.88))
178
1.78

Linear O(n)

Time

An example of a linear time algorithm is traversing a list or an array. When the size of the list or array increases, the time taken to traverse it also increases linearly with the size. Hence, the time complexity of this operation is O(n), where n is the size of the list or array being traversed.

for i in numbers:
    print(i)
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Time: 0.1secs

Space

This function takes a list of elements arr as input and returns a new list with the elements in reverse order. The function creates a new list reversed_arr of the same size as arr to store the reversed elements. The size of reversed_arr depends on the size of the input arr, so the space complexity of this function is O(n). As the input size increases, the amount of memory required to execute the function also increases linearly.

def reverse_list(arr):
    n = len(arr) 
    reversed_arr = [None] * n #create a list of None based on the length or arr
    for i in range(n):
        reversed_arr[n-i-1] = arr[i] #stores the value at the index of arr to the value at the index of reversed_arr starting at the beginning for arr and end for reversed_arr 
    return reversed_arr

print(numbers)
print(reverse_list(numbers))
[0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184, 185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226, 227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243, 244, 245, 246, 247, 248, 249, 250, 251, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262, 263, 264, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 271, 272, 273, 274, 275, 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 284, 285, 286, 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296, 297, 298, 299, 300, 301, 302, 303, 304, 305, 306, 307, 308, 309, 310, 311, 312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336, 337, 338, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 352, 353, 354, 355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 369, 370, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379, 380, 381, 382, 383, 384, 385, 386, 387, 388, 389, 390, 391, 392, 393, 394, 395, 396, 397, 398, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406, 407, 408, 409, 410, 411, 412, 413, 414, 415, 416, 417, 418, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 426, 427, 428, 429, 430, 431, 432, 433, 434, 435, 436, 437, 438, 439, 440, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449, 450, 451, 452, 453, 454, 455, 456, 457, 458, 459, 460, 461, 462, 463, 464, 465, 466, 467, 468, 469, 470, 471, 472, 473, 474, 475, 476, 477, 478, 479, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484, 485, 486, 487, 488, 489, 490, 491, 492, 493, 494, 495, 496, 497, 498, 499, 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, 509, 510, 511, 512, 513, 514, 515, 516, 517, 518, 519, 520, 521, 522, 523, 524, 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 530, 531, 532, 533, 534, 535, 536, 537, 538, 539, 540, 541, 542, 543, 544, 545, 546, 547, 548, 549, 550, 551, 552, 553, 554, 555, 556, 557, 558, 559, 560, 561, 562, 563, 564, 565, 566, 567, 568, 569, 570, 571, 572, 573, 574, 575, 576, 577, 578, 579, 580, 581, 582, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 588, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597, 598, 599, 600, 601, 602, 603, 604, 605, 606, 607, 608, 609, 610, 611, 612, 613, 614, 615, 616, 617, 618, 619, 620, 621, 622, 623, 624, 625, 626, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 632, 633, 634, 635, 636, 637, 638, 639, 640, 641, 642, 643, 644, 645, 646, 647, 648, 649, 650, 651, 652, 653, 654, 655, 656, 657, 658, 659, 660, 661, 662, 663, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668, 669, 670, 671, 672, 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 678, 679, 680, 681, 682, 683, 684, 685, 686, 687, 688, 689, 690, 691, 692, 693, 694, 695, 696, 697, 698, 699, 700, 701, 702, 703, 704, 705, 706, 707, 708, 709, 710, 711, 712, 713, 714, 715, 716, 717, 718, 719, 720, 721, 722, 723, 724, 725, 726, 727, 728, 729, 730, 731, 732, 733, 734, 735, 736, 737, 738, 739, 740, 741, 742, 743, 744, 745, 746, 747, 748, 749, 750, 751, 752, 753, 754, 755, 756, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 763, 764, 765, 766, 767, 768, 769, 770, 771, 772, 773, 774, 775, 776, 777, 778, 779, 780, 781, 782, 783, 784, 785, 786, 787, 788, 789, 790, 791, 792, 793, 794, 795, 796, 797, 798, 799, 800, 801, 802, 803, 804, 805, 806, 807, 808, 809, 810, 811, 812, 813, 814, 815, 816, 817, 818, 819, 820, 821, 822, 823, 824, 825, 826, 827, 828, 829, 830, 831, 832, 833, 834, 835, 836, 837, 838, 839, 840, 841, 842, 843, 844, 845, 846, 847, 848, 849, 850, 851, 852, 853, 854, 855, 856, 857, 858, 859, 860, 861, 862, 863, 864, 865, 866, 867, 868, 869, 870, 871, 872, 873, 874, 875, 876, 877, 878, 879, 880, 881, 882, 883, 884, 885, 886, 887, 888, 889, 890, 891, 892, 893, 894, 895, 896, 897, 898, 899, 900, 901, 902, 903, 904, 905, 906, 907, 908, 909, 910, 911, 912, 913, 914, 915, 916, 917, 918, 919, 920, 921, 922, 923, 924, 925, 926, 927, 928, 929, 930, 931, 932, 933, 934, 935, 936, 937, 938, 939, 940, 941, 942, 943, 944, 945, 946, 947, 948, 949, 950, 951, 952, 953, 954, 955, 956, 957, 958, 959, 960, 961, 962, 963, 964, 965, 966, 967, 968, 969, 970, 971, 972, 973, 974, 975, 976, 977, 978, 979, 980, 981, 982, 983, 984, 985, 986, 987, 988, 989, 990, 991, 992, 993, 994, 995, 996, 997, 998, 999]
[999, 998, 997, 996, 995, 994, 993, 992, 991, 990, 989, 988, 987, 986, 985, 984, 983, 982, 981, 980, 979, 978, 977, 976, 975, 974, 973, 972, 971, 970, 969, 968, 967, 966, 965, 964, 963, 962, 961, 960, 959, 958, 957, 956, 955, 954, 953, 952, 951, 950, 949, 948, 947, 946, 945, 944, 943, 942, 941, 940, 939, 938, 937, 936, 935, 934, 933, 932, 931, 930, 929, 928, 927, 926, 925, 924, 923, 922, 921, 920, 919, 918, 917, 916, 915, 914, 913, 912, 911, 910, 909, 908, 907, 906, 905, 904, 903, 902, 901, 900, 899, 898, 897, 896, 895, 894, 893, 892, 891, 890, 889, 888, 887, 886, 885, 884, 883, 882, 881, 880, 879, 878, 877, 876, 875, 874, 873, 872, 871, 870, 869, 868, 867, 866, 865, 864, 863, 862, 861, 860, 859, 858, 857, 856, 855, 854, 853, 852, 851, 850, 849, 848, 847, 846, 845, 844, 843, 842, 841, 840, 839, 838, 837, 836, 835, 834, 833, 832, 831, 830, 829, 828, 827, 826, 825, 824, 823, 822, 821, 820, 819, 818, 817, 816, 815, 814, 813, 812, 811, 810, 809, 808, 807, 806, 805, 804, 803, 802, 801, 800, 799, 798, 797, 796, 795, 794, 793, 792, 791, 790, 789, 788, 787, 786, 785, 784, 783, 782, 781, 780, 779, 778, 777, 776, 775, 774, 773, 772, 771, 770, 769, 768, 767, 766, 765, 764, 763, 762, 761, 760, 759, 758, 757, 756, 755, 754, 753, 752, 751, 750, 749, 748, 747, 746, 745, 744, 743, 742, 741, 740, 739, 738, 737, 736, 735, 734, 733, 732, 731, 730, 729, 728, 727, 726, 725, 724, 723, 722, 721, 720, 719, 718, 717, 716, 715, 714, 713, 712, 711, 710, 709, 708, 707, 706, 705, 704, 703, 702, 701, 700, 699, 698, 697, 696, 695, 694, 693, 692, 691, 690, 689, 688, 687, 686, 685, 684, 683, 682, 681, 680, 679, 678, 677, 676, 675, 674, 673, 672, 671, 670, 669, 668, 667, 666, 665, 664, 663, 662, 661, 660, 659, 658, 657, 656, 655, 654, 653, 652, 651, 650, 649, 648, 647, 646, 645, 644, 643, 642, 641, 640, 639, 638, 637, 636, 635, 634, 633, 632, 631, 630, 629, 628, 627, 626, 625, 624, 623, 622, 621, 620, 619, 618, 617, 616, 615, 614, 613, 612, 611, 610, 609, 608, 607, 606, 605, 604, 603, 602, 601, 600, 599, 598, 597, 596, 595, 594, 593, 592, 591, 590, 589, 588, 587, 586, 585, 584, 583, 582, 581, 580, 579, 578, 577, 576, 575, 574, 573, 572, 571, 570, 569, 568, 567, 566, 565, 564, 563, 562, 561, 560, 559, 558, 557, 556, 555, 554, 553, 552, 551, 550, 549, 548, 547, 546, 545, 544, 543, 542, 541, 540, 539, 538, 537, 536, 535, 534, 533, 532, 531, 530, 529, 528, 527, 526, 525, 524, 523, 522, 521, 520, 519, 518, 517, 516, 515, 514, 513, 512, 511, 510, 509, 508, 507, 506, 505, 504, 503, 502, 501, 500, 499, 498, 497, 496, 495, 494, 493, 492, 491, 490, 489, 488, 487, 486, 485, 484, 483, 482, 481, 480, 479, 478, 477, 476, 475, 474, 473, 472, 471, 470, 469, 468, 467, 466, 465, 464, 463, 462, 461, 460, 459, 458, 457, 456, 455, 454, 453, 452, 451, 450, 449, 448, 447, 446, 445, 444, 443, 442, 441, 440, 439, 438, 437, 436, 435, 434, 433, 432, 431, 430, 429, 428, 427, 426, 425, 424, 423, 422, 421, 420, 419, 418, 417, 416, 415, 414, 413, 412, 411, 410, 409, 408, 407, 406, 405, 404, 403, 402, 401, 400, 399, 398, 397, 396, 395, 394, 393, 392, 391, 390, 389, 388, 387, 386, 385, 384, 383, 382, 381, 380, 379, 378, 377, 376, 375, 374, 373, 372, 371, 370, 369, 368, 367, 366, 365, 364, 363, 362, 361, 360, 359, 358, 357, 356, 355, 354, 353, 352, 351, 350, 349, 348, 347, 346, 345, 344, 343, 342, 341, 340, 339, 338, 337, 336, 335, 334, 333, 332, 331, 330, 329, 328, 327, 326, 325, 324, 323, 322, 321, 320, 319, 318, 317, 316, 315, 314, 313, 312, 311, 310, 309, 308, 307, 306, 305, 304, 303, 302, 301, 300, 299, 298, 297, 296, 295, 294, 293, 292, 291, 290, 289, 288, 287, 286, 285, 284, 283, 282, 281, 280, 279, 278, 277, 276, 275, 274, 273, 272, 271, 270, 269, 268, 267, 266, 265, 264, 263, 262, 261, 260, 259, 258, 257, 256, 255, 254, 253, 252, 251, 250, 249, 248, 247, 246, 245, 244, 243, 242, 241, 240, 239, 238, 237, 236, 235, 234, 233, 232, 231, 230, 229, 228, 227, 226, 225, 224, 223, 222, 221, 220, 219, 218, 217, 216, 215, 214, 213, 212, 211, 210, 209, 208, 207, 206, 205, 204, 203, 202, 201, 200, 199, 198, 197, 196, 195, 194, 193, 192, 191, 190, 189, 188, 187, 186, 185, 184, 183, 182, 181, 180, 179, 178, 177, 176, 175, 174, 173, 172, 171, 170, 169, 168, 167, 166, 165, 164, 163, 162, 161, 160, 159, 158, 157, 156, 155, 154, 153, 152, 151, 150, 149, 148, 147, 146, 145, 144, 143, 142, 141, 140, 139, 138, 137, 136, 135, 134, 133, 132, 131, 130, 129, 128, 127, 126, 125, 124, 123, 122, 121, 120, 119, 118, 117, 116, 115, 114, 113, 112, 111, 110, 109, 108, 107, 106, 105, 104, 103, 102, 101, 100, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 91, 90, 89, 88, 87, 86, 85, 84, 83, 82, 81, 80, 79, 78, 77, 76, 75, 74, 73, 72, 71, 70, 69, 68, 67, 66, 65, 64, 63, 62, 61, 60, 59, 58, 57, 56, 55, 54, 53, 52, 51, 50, 49, 48, 47, 46, 45, 44, 43, 42, 41, 40, 39, 38, 37, 36, 35, 34, 33, 32, 31, 30, 29, 28, 27, 26, 25, 24, 23, 22, 21, 20, 19, 18, 17, 16, 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0]

Quadratic O(n^2)

Time

An example of a quadratic time algorithm is nested loops. When there are two nested loops that both iterate over the same collection, the time taken to complete the algorithm grows quadratically with the size of the collection. Hence, the time complexity of this operation is O(n^2), where n is the size of the collection being iterated over.

for i in numbers:
    for j in numbers:
        print(i,j)
0 0
0 1
0 2
0 3
0 4
0 5
0 6
0 7
0 8
0 9
0 10
0 11
0 12
0 13
0 14
0 15
0 16
0 17
0 18
0 19
0 20
0 21
0 22
0 23
0 24
0 25
0 26
0 27
0 28
0 29
0 30
0 31
0 32
0 33
0 34
0 35
0 36
0 37
0 38
0 39
0 40
0 41
0 42
0 43
0 44
0 45
0 46
0 47
0 48
0 49
0 50
0 51
0 52
0 53
0 54
0 55
0 56
0 57
0 58
0 59
0 60
0 61
0 62
0 63
0 64
0 65
0 66
0 67
0 68
0 69
0 70
0 71
0 72
0 73
0 74
0 75
0 76
0 77
0 78
0 79
0 80
0 81
0 82
0 83
0 84
0 85
0 86
0 87
0 88
0 89
0 90
0 91
0 92
0 93
0 94
0 95
0 96
0 97
0 98
0 99
0 100
0 101
0 102
0 103
0 104
0 105
0 106
0 107
0 108
0 109
0 110
0 111
0 112
0 113
0 114
0 115
0 116
0 117
0 118
0 119
0 120
0 121
0 122
0 123
0 124
0 125
0 126
0 127
0 128
0 129
0 130
0 131
0 132
0 133
0 134
0 135
0 136
0 137
0 138
0 139
0 140
0 141
0 142
0 143
0 144
0 145
0 146
0 147
0 148
0 149
0 150
0 151
0 152
0 153
0 154
0 155
0 156
0 157
0 158
0 159
0 160
0 161
0 162
0 163
0 164
0 165
0 166
0 167
0 168
0 169
0 170
0 171
0 172
0 173
0 174
0 175
0 176
0 177
0 178
0 179
0 180
0 181
0 182
0 183
0 184
0 185
0 186
0 187
0 188
0 189
0 190
0 191
0 192
0 193
0 194
0 195
0 196
0 197
0 198
0 199
0 200
0 201
0 202
0 203
0 204
0 205
0 206
0 207
0 208
0 209
0 210
0 211
0 212
0 213
0 214
0 215
0 216
0 217
0 218
0 219
0 220
0 221
0 222
0 223
0 224
0 225
0 226
0 227
0 228
0 229
0 230
0 231
0 232
0 233
0 234
0 235
0 236
0 237
0 238
0 239
0 240
0 241
0 242
0 243
0 244
0 245
0 246
0 247
0 248
0 249
0 250
0 251
0 252
0 253
0 254
0 255
0 256
0 257
0 258
0 259
0 260
0 261
0 262
0 263
0 264
0 265
0 266
0 267
0 268
0 269
0 270
0 271
0 272
0 273
0 274
0 275
0 276
0 277
0 278
0 279
0 280
0 281
0 282
0 283
0 284
0 285
0 286
0 287
0 288
0 289
0 290
0 291
0 292
0 293
0 294
0 295
0 296
0 297
0 298
0 299
0 300
0 301
0 302
0 303
0 304
0 305
0 306
0 307
0 308
0 309
0 310
0 311
0 312
0 313
0 314
0 315
0 316
0 317
0 318
0 319
0 320
0 321
0 322
0 323
0 324
0 325
0 326
0 327
0 328
0 329
0 330
0 331
0 332
0 333
0 334
0 335
0 336
0 337
0 338
0 339
0 340
0 341
0 342
0 343
0 344
0 345
0 346
0 347
0 348
0 349
0 350
0 351
0 352
0 353
0 354
0 355
0 356
0 357
0 358
0 359
0 360
0 361
0 362
0 363
0 364
0 365
0 366
0 367
0 368
0 369
0 370
0 371
0 372
0 373
0 374
0 375
0 376
0 377
0 378
0 379
0 380
0 381
0 382
0 383
0 384
0 385
0 386
0 387
0 388
0 389
0 390
0 391
0 392
0 393
0 394
0 395
0 396
0 397
0 398
0 399
0 400
0 401
0 402
0 403
0 404
0 405
0 406
0 407
0 408
0 409
0 410
0 411
0 412
0 413
0 414
0 415
0 416
0 417
0 418
0 419
0 420
0 421
0 422
0 423
0 424
0 425
0 426
0 427
0 428
0 429
0 430
0 431
0 432
0 433
0 434
0 435
0 436
0 437
0 438
0 439
0 440
0 441
0 442
0 443
0 444
0 445
0 446
0 447
0 448
0 449
0 450
0 451
0 452
0 453
0 454
0 455
0 456
0 457
0 458
0 459
0 460
0 461
0 462
0 463
0 464
0 465
0 466
0 467
0 468
0 469
0 470
0 471
0 472
0 473
0 474
0 475
0 476
0 477
0 478
0 479
0 480
0 481
0 482
0 483
0 484
0 485
0 486
0 487
0 488
0 489
0 490
0 491
0 492
0 493
0 494
0 495
0 496
0 497
0 498
0 499
0 500
0 501
0 502
0 503
0 504
0 505
0 506
0 507
0 508
0 509
0 510
0 511
0 512
0 513
0 514
0 515
0 516
0 517
0 518
0 519
0 520
0 521
0 522
0 523
0 524
0 525
0 526
0 527
0 528
0 529
0 530
0 531
0 532
0 533
0 534
0 535
0 536
0 537
0 538
0 539
0 540
0 541
0 542
0 543
0 544
0 545
0 546
0 547
0 548
0 549
0 550
0 551
0 552
0 553
0 554
0 555
0 556
0 557
0 558
0 559
0 560
0 561
0 562
0 563
0 564
0 565
0 566
0 567
0 568
0 569
0 570
0 571
0 572
0 573
0 574
0 575
0 576
0 577
0 578
0 579
0 580
0 581
0 582
0 583
0 584
0 585
0 586
0 587
0 588
0 589
0 590
0 591
0 592
0 593
0 594
0 595
0 596
0 597
0 598
0 599
0 600
0 601
0 602
0 603
0 604
0 605
0 606
0 607
0 608
0 609
0 610
0 611
0 612
0 613
0 614
0 615
0 616
0 617
0 618
0 619
0 620
0 621
0 622
0 623
0 624
0 625
0 626
0 627
0 628
0 629
0 630
0 631
0 632
0 633
0 634
0 635
0 636
0 637
0 638
0 639
0 640
0 641
0 642
0 643
0 644
0 645
0 646
0 647
0 648
0 649
0 650
0 651
0 652
0 653
0 654
0 655
0 656
0 657
0 658
0 659
0 660
0 661
0 662
0 663
0 664
0 665
0 666
0 667
0 668
0 669
0 670
0 671
0 672
0 673
0 674
0 675
0 676
0 677
0 678
0 679
0 680
0 681
0 682
0 683
0 684
0 685
0 686
0 687
0 688
0 689
0 690
0 691
0 692
0 693
0 694
0 695
0 696
0 697
0 698
0 699
0 700
0 701
0 702
0 703
0 704
0 705
0 706
0 707
0 708
0 709
0 710
0 711
0 712
0 713
0 714
0 715
0 716
0 717
0 718
0 719
0 720
0 721
0 722
0 723
0 724
0 725
0 726
0 727
0 728
0 729
0 730
0 731
0 732
0 733
0 734
0 735
0 736
0 737
0 738
0 739
0 740
0 741
0 742
0 743
0 744
0 745
0 746
0 747
0 748
0 749
0 750
0 751
0 752
0 753
0 754
0 755
0 756
0 757
0 758
0 759
0 760
0 761
0 762
0 763
0 764
0 765
0 766
0 767
0 768
0 769
0 770
0 771
0 772
0 773
0 774
0 775
0 776
0 777
0 778
0 779
0 780
0 781
0 782
0 783
0 784
0 785
0 786
0 787
0 788
0 789
0 790
0 791
0 792
0 793
0 794
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2 681
2 682
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---------------------------------------------------------------------------
KeyboardInterrupt                         Traceback (most recent call last)
/home/sophia/vscode/fastpages/_notebooks/2023-03-22-Space-and-TIme-Complexity copy.ipynb Cell 23 in <cell line: 2>()
      <a href='vscode-notebook-cell://wsl%2Bubuntu/home/sophia/vscode/fastpages/_notebooks/2023-03-22-Space-and-TIme-Complexity%20copy.ipynb#X31sdnNjb2RlLXJlbW90ZQ%3D%3D?line=1'>2</a> for i in numbers:
      <a href='vscode-notebook-cell://wsl%2Bubuntu/home/sophia/vscode/fastpages/_notebooks/2023-03-22-Space-and-TIme-Complexity%20copy.ipynb#X31sdnNjb2RlLXJlbW90ZQ%3D%3D?line=2'>3</a>     for j in numbers:
----> <a href='vscode-notebook-cell://wsl%2Bubuntu/home/sophia/vscode/fastpages/_notebooks/2023-03-22-Space-and-TIme-Complexity%20copy.ipynb#X31sdnNjb2RlLXJlbW90ZQ%3D%3D?line=3'>4</a>         print(i,j)

File ~/anaconda3/lib/python3.9/site-packages/ipykernel/iostream.py:531, in OutStream.write(self, string)
    529 is_child = (not self._is_master_process())
    530 # only touch the buffer in the IO thread to avoid races
--> 531 self.pub_thread.schedule(lambda: self._buffer.write(string))
    532 if is_child:
    533     # mp.Pool cannot be trusted to flush promptly (or ever),
    534     # and this helps.
    535     if self._subprocess_flush_pending:

File ~/anaconda3/lib/python3.9/site-packages/ipykernel/iostream.py:216, in IOPubThread.schedule(self, f)
    214     self._events.append(f)
    215     # wake event thread (message content is ignored)
--> 216     self._event_pipe.send(b'')
    217 else:
    218     f()

File ~/anaconda3/lib/python3.9/site-packages/zmq/sugar/socket.py:547, in Socket.send(self, data, flags, copy, track, routing_id, group)
    540         data = zmq.Frame(
    541             data,
    542             track=track,
    543             copy=copy or None,
    544             copy_threshold=self.copy_threshold,
    545         )
    546     data.group = group
--> 547 return super(Socket, self).send(data, flags=flags, copy=copy, track=track)

File zmq/backend/cython/socket.pyx:718, in zmq.backend.cython.socket.Socket.send()

File zmq/backend/cython/socket.pyx:765, in zmq.backend.cython.socket.Socket.send()

File zmq/backend/cython/socket.pyx:242, in zmq.backend.cython.socket._send_copy()

File ~/anaconda3/lib/python3.9/site-packages/zmq/backend/cython/checkrc.pxd:13, in zmq.backend.cython.checkrc._check_rc()

KeyboardInterrupt: 

This took a really time: I stopped the program at 2:44 and it was still running. Clearly, this time complexity is very poor.

Space

This function takes two matrices matrix1 and matrix2 as input and returns their product as a new matrix. The function creates a new matrix result with dimensions m by n to store the product of the input matrices. The size of result depends on the size of the input matrices, so the space complexity of this function is O(n^2). As the size of the input matrices increases, the amount of memory required to execute the function also increases quadratically.

Example of Matrix Multiplication

  • Main take away is that a new matrix is created.
def multiply_matrices(matrix1, matrix2):
    m = len(matrix1) 
    n = len(matrix2[0])
    result = [[0] * n] * m #this creates the new matrix based on the size of matrix 1 and 2
    for i in range(m):
        for j in range(n):
            for k in range(len(matrix2)):
                result[i][j] += matrix1[i][k] * matrix2[k][j]
    return result

print(multiply_matrices([[1,2],[3,4]], [[3,4],[1,2]]))
[[18, 28], [18, 28]]

Logarithmic O(logn)

Time

An example of a log time algorithm is binary search. Binary search is an algorithm that searches for a specific element in a sorted list by repeatedly dividing the search interval in half. As a result, the time taken to complete the search grows logarithmically with the size of the list. Hence, the time complexity of this operation is O(log n), where n is the size of the list being searched.

def binary_search(arr, low, high, target):
    while low <= high:
        mid = (low + high) // 2 #integer division
        if arr[mid] == target:
            return mid
        elif arr[mid] < target:
            low = mid + 1
        else:
            high = mid - 1

target = 263
result = binary_search(numbers, 0, len(numbers) - 1, target)

print(result)
263

Time: 0.4s

Space

The same algorithm above has a O(logn) space complexity. The function takes an array arr, its lower and upper bounds low and high, and a target value target. The function searches for target within the bounds of arr by recursively dividing the search space in half until the target is found or the search space is empty. The function does not create any new data structures that depend on the size of arr. Instead, the function uses the call stack to keep track of the recursive calls. Since the maximum depth of the recursive calls is O(logn), where n is the size of arr, the space complexity of this function is O(logn). As the size of arr increases, the amount of memory required to execute the function grows logarithmically.

Exponential O(2^n)

Time

An example of an O(2^n) algorithm is the recursive implementation of the Fibonacci sequence. The Fibonacci sequence is a series of numbers where each number is the sum of the two preceding ones, starting from 0 and 1. The recursive implementation of the Fibonacci sequence calculates each number by recursively calling itself with the two preceding numbers until it reaches the base case (i.e., the first or second number in the sequence). The algorithm takes O(2^n) time in the worst case because it has to calculate each number in the sequence by making two recursive calls.

A visualization of calculating the fibonacci sequence

def fibonacci(n):
    if n <= 1:
        return n
    else:
        return fibonacci(n-1) + fibonacci(n-2)

#print(fibonacci(5))
#print(fibonacci(10))
#print(fibonacci(20))
print(fibonacci(30))
#print(fibonacci(40))
832040

Time: 0.1s

Space

This function takes a set s as input and generates all possible subsets of s. The function does this by recursively generating the subsets of the set without the first element, and then adding the first element to each of those subsets to generate the subsets that include the first element. The function creates a new list for each recursive call that stores the subsets, and each element in the list is a new list that represents a subset. The number of subsets that can be generated from a set of size n is 2^n, so the space complexity of this function is O(2^n). As the size of the input set increases, the amount of memory required to execute the function grows exponentially.

def generate_subsets(s):
    if not s:
        return [[]]
    subsets = generate_subsets(s[1:])
    return [[s[0]] + subset for subset in subsets] + subsets

print(generate_subsets([1,2,3]))
#print(generate_subsets(numbers))
[[1, 2, 3], [1, 2], [1, 3], [1], [2, 3], [2], [3], []]

Time: 0.3s

Using the time library, we are able to see the difference in time it takes to calculate the fibonacci function above.

  • Based on what is known about the other time complexities, hypothesize the resulting elapsed time if the function is replaced.
import time

start_time = time.time()
print(fibonacci(34))
end_time = time.time()

total_time = end_time - start_time
print("Time taken:", total_time, "seconds")

start_time = time.time()
print(fibonacci(35))
end_time = time.time()

total_time = end_time - start_time
print("Time taken:", total_time, "seconds")
5702887
Time taken: 1.5206341743469238 seconds
9227465
Time taken: 2.033327579498291 seconds

Time: 3.7s

Hacks

  • Record your findings when testing the time elapsed of the different algorithms.
    • Done!
  • Although we will go more in depth later, time complexity is a key concept that relates to the different sorting algorithms. Do some basic research on the different types of sorting algorithms and their time complexity.
    • Selection sort/Bubble sort/Insertion sort: O(n^2)
    • Heap/Quick/Merge: O(n log(n))
    • Bucket/Count sort: O(n+k)
    • Radix sort: O(nk)
  • Why is time and space complexity important when choosing an algorithm?
    • Time and space complexity are important when choosing an algorithm because you want to choose the algorithm that requires the least space and time to run, so investigating this will help your program achieve maximum efficiency.
  • Should you always use a constant time algorithm / Should you never use an exponential time algorithm? Explain?
    • You should sometimes use an exponential time algorithm because at lower values and less data values, they can be faster than constant time algorithms. It just depends on how much data you'r eprocessing.
  • What are some general patterns that you noticed to determine each algorithm's time and space complexity?
    • Some general patterns I noticed were that loops often determine the time complexity. Look for the general structure of the program as well as nested for loops.

Complete the Time and Space Complexity analysis questions linked below. Practice

Time and Space Complexity Practice

a = 0 b = 0 for i in range(N): a = a + random()

for i in range(M): b= b + random()

Answer: O(N + M) time, O(1) space because the first and second loo pare independent, so you have to add N and M, you can't multiply them.

a = 0; for i in range(N): for j in reversed(range(i,N)): a = a + i + j

Answer: O(N^2) This is a nested for loop, so it runs N*N times.

k = 0; for i in range(n//2,n): for j in range(2,n,pow(2,j)): k = k + n / 2;

Answer: O(nLogn) J keeps doubling until it is less than or equal to n, so log would be used.

a = 0 i = N while (i > 0): a += i i //= 2

Answer: O(log N) Log is used here because it will sto pafter a certain time.

Which of the following best describes the useful criterion for comparing the efficiency of algorithms?

Time Memory Both of the above None of the above

Answer: Both of the above because you should consider both space and time, to consider the speed and memory the program will take, in order to achieve maximum efficiency.

How is time complexity measured?

By counting the number of algorithms in an algorithm. By counting the number of primitive operations performed by the algorithm on a given input size. By counting the size of data input to the algorithm. None of the above

Answer: By counting the number of primitive operations performed by the algorithm on a given input size

code

for i in range(n): i=i*k

Answer: O(logk(n)) because the loop goes through k^n-1 times

value = 0; for i in range(n): for j in range(i): value=value+1

Answer: n(n-1) because the first loop will run n times and the other loop will run (n-1) times.

Algorithm A and B have a worst-case running time of O(n) and O(logn), respectively. Therefore, algorithm B always runs faster than algorithm A.

True False

Answer: False because it depends on what n is.